See also: part 1, part 2, part 3, part 4, part 5, part 6 and part 7.

Recently, Rick Adams let me see a CoCo 3 Lights Out game he was working on. I have heard of the Lights Out, but have never played it. I gave it a shot…

I was immediately frustrated by how difficult such a simple game could be to win. In fact, I have yet to purposely win it, but I did get lucky one time and accidentally won.

For those who, like I was, are unfamiliar with the game… There is a 5×5 grid of squares. Of the 25 squares, random squares will be “on”, represented as green in Rick’s version. The goal is to turn them all off, represented by black.

You select a square, and that square, and the squares above, below, left and right of it will switch their state. If an adjacent square is on, it will be turned off. If it is off, it will be turned on. If you are at the edge of the grid, it does not wrap around and affect any squares on the other side.

Simple… and incredibly frustrating. I can manage to get down to one or two squares, but still haven’t figured out a pattern to shut them all off. It reminds me of when I was trying to figure out a Rubik’s Cube when they were new (maybe around 1979 or 1980?). I never did. I gave up the first week and ordered the official solution manual.

I recall Lights Out being quite trendy in recent years — maybe as a phone app or something online. This made me wonder about the origin of the game. I decided to do some “intensive/extensive” research.

1990s

From checking the always accurate and reliable Wikipedia, I learned that a game called “Lights Out” first appeared in 1995 as a handheld electronic game from Tiger Electronics. That version used a 5×5 grid of push button lights. Here is a commercial for it:

From that TV ad, I learned that not only was there the 5×5 original, but also a “Deluxe Lights Out” that used a 6×6 grid.

In 1997 they also released Lights Out in cartridge form for their touchscreen Game.com game system. I owned one of those, and since I read this game was included with the system, perhaps I did play it back then. From looking at a gameplay video, this version appears to use a 6×6 grid of lights, which I suppose made it closer to Deluxe Lights Out.

Side note: I believe it was the late Steve Bjork that told me about Game.com. It had the potential to be a Gameboy Killer, but disappeared into obscurity instead. I had one and a number of the cartridges. I actually found my Game.com Monopoly cartridge a few weeks ago, but I sold the game unit years ago.

But I digress…

1980s

Tiger Electronics was not the first to sell this game — only the first (that I can find) to call it Lights Out. In 1983, there was a handheld game called XL25 from Vulcan Electronics . It appears to play the same style game — except the goal was to turn all the lights ON instead of off… Did Tiger rip them off, 12 years later? (And what does XL25 even mean?)

I can find very little about this game, and even less about Vulcan Electronics. Please comment if you can find more information.

1970s

The Wiki also mentions a similar game existed in the 1970s for the Parker Brothers Merlin handheld system. I remember seeing TV ads for Merlin, and I recall wanting one. I don’t think I ever even got to play with one, though.

From this TV ad, the game in question appears to be Magic Square. The goal of it was not to get all of its 3×3 lights off or on, but to make just the outer lights on to form a square.

It does appear the game mechanics where the same as Lights Out.

Did Magic Square lead to XL25 which led to Lights Out? Or was there something even earlier? Maybe on some mainframe system? Leave a comment if you have more information on just what “Lights Out” patient zero is.

Present Day (not Christmas or Birthday)

Since the concept was known in the 1970s, someone could have used it for inspiration to write a CoCo version of the Merlin 3×3 “Magic Square” on a 1980 CoCo. In 1983, a CoCo owner could have created a 5×5 XL25 version. Heck, many of us were still using our CoCos in 1995 and 1997 when Tiger Electronics had their 5×5 and 6×6 versions.

Did you ever see this game on the CoCo back then?

Inspired by Rick Adams’ work, I thought it might be fun to see how much effort this game would be to write. I expect it will be much easier to write than it is to win.

In the next installment, we’ll look at some ways to implement this game in Color BASIC.

Until then…

As I wrote about earlier, in 1986 I created a demo program that displays a Doctor Who logo (based on the one from the Tom Baker era of the show) and played a version of the theme song I created in Musica 2.

You can download a disk image of this demo from the CoCo archive site:

https://colorcomputerarchive.com/repo/Disks/Demos/Dr.%20Who%20Demo%20%28Allen%20Huffman%29.zip

I created the music by ear (listening to a cassette tape recording I made from TV) in Musica 2:

Here is a video of the demo playing:

I remembered using a BASIC program to draw most of the logo, then using some graphics program to add the text. I have recently located the original BASIC program:

10 PMODE4,1:COLOR0,1:PCLS:SCREEN1,1
15 GOTO30
20 DRAW"BM128,20;M35,90;M128,160;M220,90;M128,20;BM128,30;M47,90;M128,150;M208,90;M128,30"
25 GOTO25
30 CIRCLE(128,135),100,,1,.66,.85:CIRCLE(128,135),80,,1,.66,.85:LINE(73,53)-(83,68),PSET:LINE(182,53)-(172,68),PSET:PAINT(128,36)
40 DRAW"BM65,70;M70,110;M80,110;M85,95;M90,110;M100,110;M105,70;M95,70;M93,95;M85,80;M78,95;M78,95;M75,70;M65,70":PAINT(66,71)
50 DRAW"BM110,70;M110,110;M120,110;M120,95;M140,95;M140,110;M150,110;M150,70;M140,70;M140,85;M120,85;M120,70;M110,70":PAINT(111,71)
60 CIRCLE(175,90),21:CIRCLE(175,90),12:PAINT(175,71)
70 GOTO20

It draws this:

Sometime, I’d like to try to create a more accurate version of that logo, and update the music to be more accurate as well.

Sometime.

A few months back, 8-bit Show and Tell tweeted this:

I was curious if the bug existed in Color BASIC, so I tried it and tweeted back confirming ours had the same issue.

Recently, he posted this deep dive video about the bug, mentioning my reply and others (including CoCoist Tim Lindner) that showed this bug on various other systems:

At the time of the original tweet, I wrote a blog post about the bug (that is the screen shot he shows in his video). I thought I’d add a follow-up to my post, with a bit more detail.

The bug explained…

William Astle commented on my original post explaining what was going on, similar to the explanation Robin gave in a tweet reply.

The issue is that VAL puts a NUL at the end of the string then calls the regular number parser, which can then bail out unceremoniously. While VAL itself does restore the original byte after the string, that code path does not execute when an error occurs parsing the number. The NUL is required so the parser knows where to stop interpreting bytes.

– William Astle, 8/17/2023

Let’s dive in a bit more from the CoCo side… First, just in case you aren’t a BASIC programmer, the VAL keyword is designed to convert a string to a numeric variable. For instance, you can do this:

A$="1234"
A=VAL(A$)

Above, A$ is a string variable containing the characters “1234” and A is a numeric variable of 1234. I see this often used in Extended Color BASIC when the LINE INPUT command is used with a string, and then converted to a number:

10 LINE INPUT "AGE: ";A$
20 A=VAL(A$)

But I digress..

LINE INPUT is a better form of INPUT, but it only works with string variables. If you were to type letters in to a LINE INPUT, then run those through VAL, they should evaluate as 0. So type in “42” and VAL(A$) gives you 42. Type in “BACON” and VAL(A$) gives you 0. If you had just used INPUT “AGE”;A and typed non-numbers, it would respond with “?REDO” and go back to the input prompt.

Second, let’s make the bug easier to see by clarifying this “1E39” scientific notation thing. The bug has nothing to do with using scientific notation. It has to do with having a number that is too big causing the Overflow Error and aborting the VAL conversion of a string to a number.

Scientific Notation

“1E39” is a number 1 followed by 39 zeros. It appears BASIC is happy to print out the full number if it is short enough, but at some point starts showing it in scientific notation. I found that 1 followed by 8 zeros (100000000) is fine, but 9 zeros switched over to scientific notation:

And it does that even if you just try to use a number like “1000000000” directly:

I guess I had never used numbers that large during my Color BASIC days. ;-)

You may notice it prints “1E9” back as “1E+09”. You can use “1E+09” or “1E+9” as well, and it does the same thing. If you leave out the “+”, it assumes it. The reason for the plus is because you can also use it to represent fractional numbers. In the case of +9, it is moving the decimal place nine places to the right. “1E5” is taking “1.0” and moving the decimal place five places to the right like “100000.0”

If you use a “-“, you are moving the decimal that many places left. “1E-1” takes “1.0” and moves the decimal one spot left, producing “.1”. It appears you cannot print as many values that way before it turns in to scientific notation:

And, printing those values directly shows something similar:

I guess I had never used numbers that small during my Color BASIC days. ;-)

This made me wonder if the VAL bug would happen if a value was too small, but it seems at some point the number just becomes zero, so no error occurs. (Maybe William will chime in with some more information on this. I was actually expecting a similar “Underflow” error, but I don’t think we have a ?UF ERROR in Color BASCIC ;-)

For fun, I wondered if this was truly considered zero. In C, using floating to compare against specific floating point values can cause issues. For example:

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>

int main()
{
    float a = 902.1;

    if (a == 902.1)
    {
        printf ("a is 902.1\n");
    }
    else
    {
        printf ("a is NOT 902.1\n");
    }

    return EXIT_SUCCESS;
}

I have discussed this here in the past, but if you run that, it will print “a is NOT 902.1″. This is because 902.1 is not a value that a 32-bit C floating point variable can exactly represent. I expect this could also be the case in Color BASIC, so I wanted to do a quick check and see if “1E-39” (which shows as zero) really was 0:

IF 0=1E-39 THEN PRINT "YES"

That printed “YES” so I will just assume at a certain point, BASIC floating point values just turn in to zero.

But I digress… Again.

The point is, it’s a bug with the number being too large, so even if you do this, you can cause the overflow:

10 A=VAL("1000000000000000000000000000000000000000"):REM SHOW BUG
20 PRINT A

Above, that 40 character number (1 with the decimal place 39 places to the right) is just too long and it will cause the ?OV ERROR.

Strings in String Memory

In my String Theory series, I dove in to how strings work on the CoCo. The important bit is there is reserved string memory for strings, for things like INPUT/LINE INPUT, and string manipulation like MID$, LEFT$, etc. There are also “constant” strings that exist in the program code itself.

If you assign a string directly from BASIC (not in a line number of a program), it will go in to string memory:

A$="THIS IS IN STRING MEMORY"
PRINT A$
THIS IS IN STRING MEMORY

But, if that is in a program, BASIC just makes an entry for “A$” and points it to the spot in the BASIC program where the quoted text exists:

10 A$="THIS IS IN PROGRAM MEMORY"
20 PRINT A$
RUN
THIS IS IN PROGRAM MEMORY

That is what causes the problem with VAL. BASIC attempts to modify the closing quote in the BASIC program itself and make it a 0, and never restores it. The BASIC “LIST” command starts showing the line up until it sees a 0, then stops. The rest of the line is still in memory, but is now invisible to LIST. If you try to run the program after it gets “corrupted”, it will error out on the VAL line since it is missing the closing quote:

However, the code is still there. If you know where the BASIC program starts in memory, and ends in memory, you can use PEEK/PRINT to see the contents. Memory locations 25/26 are the start of the BASIC program, and locations 27/28 are the start of variables which are stored directly after the program, so something like this would do it:

Much like what Robin showed in his video using a machine language monitor to dump memory, above we can look for the bytes that would be the “1E39” (quote is 34, “1” is 49, “E” is 69, “3” is 51 and “9” is 57), we can find that byte sequence of 34, 49, 69, 43, 51 and 57 in the second line followed by a zero where the final quote (34) used to be. After that zero is a 41 which is the “)” that used to be in VAL(“1E39”), then a 58 which is a “:” colon, and then a 130 which is the byte for the “REM” token, then a 32 which is a space, and 83, 72, 79 and 38 are “SHOW” followed by a 32 space then 66, 85, 71 which is “BUG” and a real 0 marking the end of the line.

If I knew the byte that is now a 0, I could just POKE it back to 34 and restore the program, just like Robin did on his Commodore 64.

FOR A=PEEK(25)*256+PEEK(26) TO PEEK(27)*256+PEEK(28):PRINT A,PEEK(A):NEXT

That would start printing memory locations and I could quickly BREAK the program when I see the 0 I am looking for show up.

I believe the zero at 9744 is the one after “1E39” and I can do this to restore the program:

Now, if only Color BASIC did that after an ?OV ERROR! Although we did get an updated BASIC in 1986 for the Color Computer 3, it was just patches on top of the old Microsoft BASIC to add new CoCo 3 features.

Avoiding the VAL bug

Which brings me to this… If the string to parse was in string memory, changing that final byte and not changing it back would be no problem because strings all end with a 0 in memory anyway! There is nothing to corrupt.

To force a variable to be in string memory, you can add +”” when you declare it, like this:

10 A$="THIS IS IN STRING MEMORY"+""

Since BASIC has to combine those two strings, it makes a new string in string memory to copy the “THIS IS IN STRING MEMORY” string and the “” string there. (It is not smart enough to check to know that “” is unneeded, which is good because it lets us do things like this.)

10 A=VAL("1E39"+""):REM NO BUG HERE
20 PRINT A

And that is a simple way to work around this bug. Since the bug only affects hard-coded strings in program memory, it should be easy to avoid just by not using values too large for variables :)

And if you are inputting them, the INPUT is going in to string memory and you will still get an ?OV ERROR (crashing the program) but at least the program would not get corrupted:

10 PRINT "TYPE 1 AND 39 ZEROS":
20 INPUT A

Have fun…

Chet Simpson posted this in the Color Computer Facebook group recently:

Some folks understand it, some folks are confused by it, and I decided to be inspired by it to write this article.

In the C programming language, you can do that assignment:

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>

int main(int argc, char **argv)
{
    int a,b,c,d;
    
    a = 0;
    b = 1;
    c = 2;
    d = 3;
    
    a = b = c = d = 4;

    printf ("a=%d b=%d c=%d d=%d\n", a, b, c, d);

    return EXIT_SUCCESS;
}

That program will produce the following output:

a=4 b=4 c=4 d=4

You can try this program online, if you want.

In BASIC, the “=” works a bit differently because it can be both an assignment (A=5) or a test (IF A=5 THEN). For example:

REM ASSIGNMENT
A=5

REM TEST
IF A=5 THEN PRINT "A IS 5"

Perhaps this is why there was a keyword LET in early BASIC. When you use LET (it is supported on the CoCo), it tells BASIC you are assigning a variable:

LET A=5

Perhaps if LET was required for an assignment, those BASICs could treat the “=” when seen not after a LET as a test. Anyone know the history of LET?

In C, this is solved by having “=” be an assignment, and “==” being a test:

a = 5; // assignment

if (a == 5) { ... } // test

BASIC could have used “LET” to me “=”, and no LET to mean “==”, but it doesn’t. Saying “the BASIC parser doesn’t work like that” is an accurate answer, but it did bring to mind some things I never knew back when I was learning BASIC.

What is A=B?

You cannot answer that, without seeing more context. “IF A=B THEN” is a test. “LET A=B” or just “A=B” is an assignment.

When is it a test? After IF.

IF A=5 THEN PRINT "A IS 5!"

It is also a test after a PRINT:

PRINT A=5

Or after an assignment:

Z=A=5

To make this cleared, the “test” part (after the initial assignment) could be put in parentheses is like this:

Z=(A=5)

But, the parents are optional in this case, but can matter when doing certain things, such as math.

I am sure I have discussed this in an earlier article, but to recap, when things are a test, they return either -1 if TRUE, or 0 if FALSE. For example:

A=1
B=1
PRINT A=B
-1

A=0
B=1
PRINT A=B
0

The result of any test in BASIC is either 0 or -1. BASIC treats 0 as FALSE, and anything else as TRUE:

IF 0 THEN PRINT "FALSE"
IF -1 THEN PRINT "TRUE"
IF 1 THEN PRINT "TRUE"
IF 42 THEN PRINT "TRUE"

Here’s a simple program that shows this:

10 FOR A=-2 TO 2
20 PRINT A,;:IF A THEN PRINT "TRUE" ELSE PRINT "FALSE"
30 NEXT

BASIC returns either -1 (TRUE) or 0 (FALSE) from a comparison, but IF only cares about “not zero” as true, and treats only 0 as false. That logic makes sense. “IF condition is true THEN do something”.

If you were trying to specifically test for 0 or -1, you would have a different result:

IF A=0 THEN PRINT "FALSE" ELSE IF A=-1 THEN PRINT "TRUE"

That would not catch anything that wasn’t a 0 or -1, so you’d really want to add a bit more:

IF A=0 THEN PRINT "FALSE" ELSE IF A=-1 THEN PRINT "TRUE" ELSE PRINT "UNKNOWN"

I’ll mention this again in a moment…

Let’s see what the BASIC parser is trying to do when it sees something like this:

A=B=4

What does that mean? A= tells us there is an assignment, then after that, then B=4 is what we’d like for it to be, and B=4 is a test. In Chet’s case…

A=B=C=D=4

We might feel all variables would come back as 4, but the variables appear to be completely left alone:

10 A=0:B=1:C=2:D=3
20 A=B=C=D=4
30 PRINT A;B;C:D

Running that will print…

 0  1  2  3

The key part is “appear to be completely left alone”. There is something happening that we are not seeing. If you change the code to set the variables to 1, 2, 3 and 4, and then try to set all of them to 5, you now see more of what is going on:

10 A=1:B=2:C=3:D=4
20 A=B=C=D=5
30 PRINT A;B;C:D

Running THAT version will print:

 0  2  3  4

Now we can see that A, which starts out as 1, is getting set to 0. Something is being assigned after all. If you break it down, here it what you see:

A=1:B=2:C=3:D=4
PRINT A=B
0
PRINT B=C
0
PRINT C=D
0

Individually, each of those tests returns 0 for FALSE. Since we see that A is getting set to 0, it is getting assigned the result of the first test after it: B=C. If you try this, you would get the same result in A:

A=1:B=2:C=3
A=(B=C)
PRINT A
0

That makes sense. And if the parser is just going through the line, automatically grouping the tests, perhaps something like this:

A=1:B=2:C=3:D=4
A=(B=(C=D))

And THAT looks exactly like what we are getting.

• C=D returns 0, false.
• B=0 (the result of C=D) returns 0, false.
• Then A is assigned 0.

Could it be as simple as that? Somehow BASIC has to know if something is an assignment or a test, and perhaps as it scans forward, finding an additional “=” is enough to start it looking for tests rather than assignments. (I bet William Astle already knows how this works, and maybe he will see this and comment.)

Chet’s code shows BASIC does not work like we might expect, especially if we are used to how things work in languages like C. In C, it would look like this:

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>

int main(int argc, char **argv)
{
    int a,b,c,d;
    
    a=1;
    b=2;
    c=3;
    d=4;
    
    a=b==c==d;
    
    printf ("a=%d b=%d c=%d d=%d\n", a, b, c, d);

    return EXIT_SUCCESS;
}

Notice the use of double equals “==” in the assignment line. If you run that in C, you get the same results as BASIC:

a=0 b=2 c=3 d=4

The thing C does differently is that when you have an assignment, that code block returns the value of the assignment, since it knows it is an assignment:

printf ("a=1 returns: %d\n", a=1);
printf ("b=2 returns: %d\n", b=2);
printf ("c=3 returns: %d\n", c=3);
printf ("d=4 returns: %d\n", d=4);

That would print:

a=1 returns: 1
b=2 returns: 2
c=3 returns: 3
d=4 returns: 4

And in BASIC, the “a=1” if being seen as a test will return either -1 (if false) or 0 (true).

In C, we have “==” to change the behavior from assignment to test:

a=1;
b=2;
c=3;
d=4;

printf ("a==1 returns: %d\n", a==1);
printf ("b==2 returns: %d\n", b==2);
printf ("c==3 returns: %d\n", c==3);
printf ("d==4 returns: %d\n", d==4);

Above, that prints:

a==1 returns: 1
b==2 returns: 1
c==3 returns: 1
d==4 returns: 1

In C, 1 is true, and 0 is false. Had the variables been initialized to something that made the tests for 1, 2, 3 and 4 invalid…

a=42;
b=42;
c=42;
d=42;

printf ("a==1 returns: %d\n", a==1);
printf ("b==2 returns: %d\n", b==2);
printf ("c==3 returns: %d\n", c==3);
printf ("d==4 returns: %d\n", d==4);

…you would see that the value returned from the “a==1” test would be 0 for false.

a==1 returns: 0
b==2 returns: 0
c==3 returns: 0
d==4 returns: 0

If BASIC forced the use of LET for an assignment, or used “==” for test instead of “=”, then it could figure out what we mean when we try “A=B=C=D=5″” or whatever. BASIC would know that “D=4” is an assignment, and to return 4, versus “D==4” being a test, and returning true 0 or false -1.

But it doesn’t.

Happy new year!